Is meat-eating really un-Hindu and un-Indian?
Ayurveda provides insights on meat consumption in ancient India, challenging the belief that Hinduism is inherently vegetarian
During the Lok Sabha elections, Prime Minister Narendra Modi, in his election rally in Udhampur, described meat-eating as going against Indian culture. A few months before that, Congress leader Rahul Gandhi went to the house of RJD president Lalu Prasad Yadav. There he cooked and ate mutton with Lalu Yadav and his daughter Misa Bharti and even got it packed for his sister Priyanka Gandhi. He also shared this cooking-eating on YouTube. In this context and the election atmosphere, without directly naming anyone, Prime Minister Narendra Modi said that the leaders of the Congress and the "India" alliance "enjoy cooking mutton in the month of 'Sawan' and not only that, they make videos of it and try to provoke the people of the country." He further said that "this is their (opposition leaders') 'Mughaliya' thinking, going beyond appeasement."
If you search for "non-veg food controversy" on Google, you'll likely find news of a related dispute in India almost every other month. These range from cases of restaurants mistakenly serving non-vegetarian dishes to customers who ordered vegetarian meals, to the outrage of some lawyers in the Supreme Court over the availability of non-vegetarian food during Navratri. In 2022, violence even broke out between student groups at Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU) over this issue. Late last year, a controversy arose at the Kannada Literary Conference in Karnataka regarding non-vegetarian food.
Numerous such examples can be easily found, demonstrating that the debate surrounding vegetarian versus non-vegetarian food is not only nationwide but has also been ongoing in various forms for a long time. However, in recent years, this debate has taken a new turn, with dietary choices, clothing, and modes of worship increasingly becoming tools for political maneuvering rather than simply matters of personal preference.
Is meat-eating un-indian?
Regarding the ongoing debate on vegetarianism versus meat-eating, a common criticism of meat consumption is that it contradicts Indian culture. The rationale given is that Sanatan Dharma (Hinduism) emphasizes non-violence (ahimsa), considering the killing of any living being a great sin, and killing for food the most reprehensible act. It is further argued that meat-eating is prohibited in the Vedas and therefore incompatible with an Indian lifestyle. Additionally, meat-eating is often labeled as un-Indian, with the claim that it was imported from foreign cultures.
However, if we examine Ayurveda, a prominent and ancient branch of Indian culture, tradition, and lifestyle, a different picture emerges. Ayurvedic texts, which instruct on the health of body and mind, clearly and repeatedly mention the consumption of meat, not only as medicine but also as part of a healthy diet. Before discussing specific examples, it's important to note that the 'Charanavyuha Sutra' (a text describing the branches of the Vedas) designates Ayurveda as an upaveda of the Rigveda. This suggests at least a broad historical acceptance of meat-eating within the Vedic tradition.
According to Hindu scriptures, the history of Ayurvedic literature is linked to deities like Brahma, Indra, and Dhanvantari. This means that those who have faith in Indian culture and Sanatan Dharma should have no doubt about its antiquity. Moreover, the three great sages who composed Ayurveda – Charaka, Vagbhata, and Sushruta – lived at least fifteen hundred years ago from today. Among them, the lifetime of Rishi Charaka is considered to be before the Common Era. This implies that it would not be correct to call meat-eating imported or to say that it was brought to India by Muslims or Westerners.
Which texts of Ayurveda mention meat consumption?
Among the ancient texts of Ayurveda, the three most prominent are the Charaka Samhita, the Sushruta Samhita, and the Ashtanga Hridaya. The Sushruta Samhita, authored by Rishi Sushruta, emphasizes surgical procedures. The other two texts, by Rishi Charaka and Vagbhata, focus on dietary and lifestyle guidelines for maintaining health. Ayurvedic understanding of physical health centers on balancing the body's three doshas – Vata, Pitta, and Kapha. Mental health, in contrast, is assessed by the relative balance of the three gunas – Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas – aiming to maximize Sattva and minimize Rajas and Tamas. Briefly, Rajas is associated with attachment, Tamas with lethargy, and Sattva with self-awareness.
When discussing meat consumption in Ayurvedic texts, the Charaka Samhita is a primary reference. Its twenty-seventh chapter, within the Sutra Sthana (the first part of the Charaka Samhita), details recommended dietary components and categorizes food and drink into twelve groups: Shukadhanyavarga (grains), Shamidhanyavarga (pulses), Mamsavarga(meat), Shakavarga (vegetables), Phalavarga (fruits), Haritavarga (leafy greens/salads), Madyavarga (alcoholic beverages), Jalavarga (water), Dugdhavarga (milk products), Ikshuvarga (sugars/sweeteners), Kritannavarga (prepared foods/soups), and Aharopayogi varga (spices). Notably, meat (Mamsavarga) is listed third, and there is a shloka (verse) associated with it:
‘शरीरबृंहणे नान्यत् खाद्यं मांसाद् विशिष्यते
इति वर्गस्तृतीयोअयं मांसानां परिकीर्तितः’
Sharīra-bṛṁhaṇe nānyat khādyaṁ māṁsād viśiṣyate
Iti vargastṛtīyo’yaṁ māṁsānāṁ parikīrtitaḥ
(Charaka Samhita, Sutrasthanam Chapter 27 - Shloka 87)
Translation: For building up the body, there is no food superior to meat. Thus, this third category, that of meats, has been described.
Like Rishi Charaka, Rishi Vagbhata also categorizes food and drink into seven groups in the sixth chapter - Annasvarupavijnana - of the Sutrasthanam section of the Ashtanga Hridaya. The meat category (Mamsavarga) is placed fourth. The related shloka (verse) is as follows:
इत्यौषधवर्गः
शूकशिम्बीजपक्वान्नमांसशाकफलौषधैः
वर्गितैरन्नलेशोऽयमुक्तो नित्योपयोगिकः
Ityauṣadhavargaḥ
Śūkaśimbījapakvānnamāṁsaśākaphalauṣadhaiḥ
Vargitairannaleśo’ yamukto nityopayogikaḥ
(Ashtanga Hridayam, Sutrasthanam Chapter 6 - Shloka 172)
Translation: Thus, this is the category of medicinal substances: grains (shūka), legumes (śimbī), cooked rice (pakvānna), meat (māṁsa), vegetables (śāka), fruits (phala), and medicinal herbs (auṣadha). This classification of food is considered suitable for daily consumption.
It's interesting to note that while today's discussion of meat consumption often centers on chicken, mutton, beef, or perhaps fish and shrimp, Ayurveda describes eight distinct categories of meat: Mriga, Vishkira, Pratuda, Bileshaya, Prasaha, Mahamriga, Jalachara Pakshi, and Matsyavarga. The Mriga and Prasaha groups include animals such as deer, cows, sambar, rabbits, chickens, goats, and sheep. The Vishkira and Pratuda groups encompass various birds, including partridges, peacocks, pigeons, sparrows, and others. Small creatures, known as Bileshaya, include burrowing animals like rats and snakes. Jalachara Pakshi refers to aquatic birds such as swans, cranes, and herons, while Matsyavarga includes various fish, shrimp, algae, and turtles. The Mahamriga group comprises large animals like pigs, buffaloes, and even elephants.
What is Ayurveda's opinion on meat-eating?
By classifying living beings in this way, Vagbhata and Rishi Charaka also clarified in their texts the effects of consuming different meats on the body's Vata, Pitta, and Kapha doshas. For example, Ayurveda describes sparrow meat as "sweet, unctuous, strength-promoting, and semen-promoting," and considers it particularly effective in pacifying Vata dosha and Tridosha (Vata, Pitta, Kapha)." (Charaka Samhita, Sutrasthanam Chapter 27). Ayurvedic texts also specify circumstances under which meat consumption is inappropriate. For instance, they strongly advise overweight individuals to avoid meat. Similarly, women are advised to abstain from meat for at least 12 days postpartum.
The Uttarabhaga—Chikitsasthana section of the Charaka Samhita further details how to prepare and consume specific meats as part of dietary regimens for treating various ailments. Chapter 24, addressing appropriate meat consumption even in the context of alcohol use, states, "A Kapha-predominant individual subsisting on barley and wheat should consume warm foods and the meat of wild animals prepared with black pepper, followed by alcohol consumption.
Furthermore, Ayurveda provides guidelines for identifying meat of good quality, cautioning against consuming meat with visible blue lines, as this may indicate toxicity. The shloka (verse) concerning appropriate meat consumption under normal circumstances is as follows:
‘मांसं सद्योहतं शुद्धं वयःस्थं च भजेत् त्यजेत्
मृतं कृशं भृशं मेद्यं व्याधिवारिविषैर्हतम्’
Māṁsaṁ sadyohataṁ śuddhaṁ vayaḥsthaṁ ca bhajet tyajet
mṛtaṁ kṛśaṁ bhṛśaṁ medyaṁ vyādhivāri-viṣairhatam.
(Ashtanga Hridayam, Sutrasthanam Chapter 6 - Shloka 68)
(Translation: The meat of a young animal that has been killed immediately and cleaned properly should be consumed. The meat of animals that have died on their own, are very weak, very fatty, or have died from any disease, drowning, or poisonous substances should not be eaten.)
Examining some popular contemporary non-vegetarian options through the lens of Ayurveda, we find that chicken and fish are considered fatty, hot in taaseer (nature/potency), and known to promote strength and weight gain. They are described as Kapha-increasing and difficult to digest, making them more suitable for individuals with a predominance of Vata. On the other hand, mutton (goat meat) is regarded as the most suitable meat in Ayurveda. The related shloka states:
नाशीतगुरूस्निग्धं मांसमाजमदोषलम्
शरीरधातु सामान्यादनभिष्यन्दि बृंहणम्
Nāśīta gurusnigdhaṁ māṁsam ājam adoṣalam
Śarīradhātu sāmānyād anabhiṣyandaṁ bṛṁhaṇam
(Charaka Samhita, Sutrasthanam Chapter 27 – Shloka 61)
(Translation: Goat meat is neither too cold in 'taaseer,' nor too slow to digest, nor too fatty. Therefore, goat meat does not aggravate any 'dosha'. Due to the similar properties of human and goat meat, this meat is the most suitable.)
Regarding beef (meat from cows or buffaloes), as previously mentioned, it falls under the Mrigmamsa (deer meat) category. Ayurveda describes buffalo meat as fatty, heating, heavy, nutritious, and aphrodisiac (Charaka Samhita, Sutrasthanam Chapter 27 - Verse 80). Given its fattening and sleep-inducing properties, some Ayurvedic commentators suggest it would be a favorite food of the giant Kumbhakarna, who famously slept for six months. In contrast, and addressing the more controversial topic of cow meat, Ayurveda states that its consumption can alleviate dry cough, colds, occasional fevers, fatigue, weakness, and rheumatism. The related shloka (verse) is as follows:
Despite these attributed qualities, Acharya Charaka considers it the most unwholesome (apathya, Charaka Samhita Chapter 25, Verse 39) among Mrigmamsa. He states that beef increases Vata and slows digestion. Furthermore, Acharya Vagbhata designates it as nindita (condemned) food and advises against its consumption. In summary, while Ayurveda acknowledges some medicinal uses for beef in specific circumstances, it cautions against its regular consumption.
Given the classification of meats discussed earlier in this article, one might assume that Ayurveda advocates making every creature food—except humans. However, this is not the case. According to commentators, Ayurveda emphasizes balance in all aspects of life. Food, milk, and meat are recommended based on individual circumstances and needs, and even water intake is restricted when unnecessary—let alone meat. The related shloka (verse) from the Charaka Samhita states:
अन्नं वृत्तिकारणां श्रेष्ठम, क्षीरं जीवनीयानां, मांसं बृंहणीयानां
Annaṁ vṛttikāraṇāṁ śreṣṭham, kṣīraṁ jīvanīyānāṁ, māṁsaṁ bṛṁhaṇīyānāṁ
(Charaka Samhita, Sutrasthanam Chapter 25 – Shloka 40)
(Translation: Cereals are the best diet for sustenance, milk is the best for giving life, and meat is the most suitable for increasing or strengthening the body.)
Regarding the description of nearly all creatures as potential food sources, Ayurveda states that humans can utilize the meat of appropriate animals medicinally or as part of a therapeutic diet, based on individual needs. Concerning the killing of animals solely for consumption or taste, many Ayurvedic commentators consider it unethical. However, no shloka exists within the core Ayurvedic texts, authored by the original sages, either advocating or explicitly prohibiting it. In this context, some commentators reference a shloka from the Manusmriti: ‘भूतानां प्राणिनः श्रेष्ठाः प्राणिनां बु्द्धिजीविनः’ (bhūtānāṁ prāṇinaḥ śreṣṭhāḥ prāṇināṁ buddhi-jīvinaḥ). This translates to: "Among all forms of existence, living beings are superior, and among living beings, humans are preeminent."
Thus, it could be argued that the scriptures implicitly accept, or at least do not explicitly condemn, the sacrifice of animals for human survival or well-being.